Partnership 1932

What is Partnership??
Partnership is the relation between two or more persons,who have agreed to share the profits of the business,which is carried on by all or any one of them acting for all. Partnership is governed by the “Indian Partnership Act 1932”.
Definition of Partnership?
According to the “Indian Partnership Act 1932”,”Partnership is the relationship between two persons,who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all.”The persons who have entered a partnership with one another are individually called”Partners” and the association of these partner is called”firm.”
Maximum Limit of Partners
The new Companies Act 2013 has prescribed the maximum number of members in case of a partnership firm should not be more than 100 in case of partnerships. As per the previous Companies Act 1956, the maximum limit in case of partnerships was 10 and 20 for banking business and other businesses respectively.
Partnership Deed
When two or more persons join hands to set up a business and share its profits and losses it is called Partnership. Section 4 of the Indian Partnership Act 1932 defines partnership as the ‘relation between persons who have agreed to share the profits of a business carried on by all or any of them acting for all’.
Partnership deed generally contains the following details:
(1)Names and Addresses of the firm and its main business;
(2)Names and Addresses of all partners;
(3)A contribution of the amount of capital by each partner;
(4)The accounting period of the firm;
(5)The date of commencement of partnership;
(6)Rules regarding an operation of Bank Accounts;
(7)Profit and loss sharing ratio;
(8)The rate of interest on capital, loan, drawings, etc;
(9)Mode of auditor’s appointment, if any;
(10)Salaries, commission, etc, if payable to any partner;
(11)The rights, duties, and liabilities of each partner;
(12)Treatment of loss arising out of insolvency of one or more partners;
(13)Settlement of accounts on the dissolution of the firm;
(14)Method of a settlement of disputes among the partners;
(15)Rules to be followed in case of admission, retirement, a death of a partner; and
(16)Any other matter relating to the conduct of business. Normally, all the matters affecting the relationship of partners amongst themselves are covered in partnership deed.
What are the different types of partnership??
(1)Partnership at will 
If there is no clause to establish a partnership at the expiry of such a partnership, it is referred to as a partnership at will. In accordance with Section 7 of The Indian Partnership Act, 1932, two conditions have to be met for a partnership to be a partnership at will and they are:
*There is no agreement on a fixed period for the existence of a partnership.
*No provision is made for establishing a partnership.
If a partnership has been established and continues to operate beyond the fixed period, the partnership will become a partnership at will after the end of that term.
(2)Particular Partnership 
A partnership can be formed for ongoing business or for a particular purpose. If the partnership is only formed to carry out one company or complete one undertaking, it is known as a particular partnership.The partnership will be dissolved after the completion of the said venture or activity. The partners may, however, come to an agreement to continue the said partnership. But in the absence of this, when the task is complete, the partnership ends.
(3)Partnership for a Fixed Term
Now, during the establishment of a partnership, the partners may agree on the duration of this arrangement. This would mean that the partnership was established for a fixed period of time.Therefore, such a partnership will not be called a partnership at will, it will be a partnership for a fixed term. The partnership ends after the expiration of such a duration.However, there may be cases where the partners continue their business even after the expiry of the duration. They continue to share profits and there is a component of a mutual agency. Then in such a case, the partnership will be at will.
(4)General Partnership
When the purpose of forming the partnership is to carry out the business in general, it is said to be a general partnership.Unlike a particular partnership, in a general partnership, the scope of the business to be carried out is not defined, so all the partners are accountable for all the actions of the partnership.

Compiler

A compiler is a computer program that translates computer code written in one programming language(the source language) into another language (the target language).The name compiler is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e.g.,assembly language, object code, or machine code) to create an executable program.However, there are many different types of compilers. If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler runs, the compiler is a cross-compiler.A bootstrap compiler is written in the language that it intends to compile. A program that translates from a low-level language to a higher level one is a decompiler.  A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a source-to-source complier or transpiler. A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language. The term compiler-compiler refers to tools used to create parsers that perform syntax analysis.
   
         
Language processing systems (using Compiler) –
We know a computer is a logical assembly of Software and Hardware. The hardware knows a language, that is hard for us to grasp, consequently we tend to write programs in high-level language, that is much less complicated for us to comprehend and maintain in thoughts. Now these programs go through a series of transformation so that they can readily be used machines. This is where language procedure systems come handy.

Operating System

An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer system. This tutorial will take you through step by step approach while learning Operating System concepts.An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
Definition
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.



Following are some of important functions of an operating System.
(1)Memory Management 
(2)Processor Management
(3)Device Management
(4)File Management
(5)Security
(6)Control Over System Performance
(7)Job Accounting
(8)Error Detecting Aids
(9)Coordination Between Other Software and Users

Types of Operating System

Here,We are discussing about type of Operating System and details also. 

(1)Batch Operating System 

The users of a batch operating system do not interact with the computer directly. Each user prepares his job on an off-line device like punch cards and submits it to the computer operator. To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group. The programmers leave their programs with the operator and the operator then sorts the programs with similar requirements into batches.

The problems with Batch Systems are as follows −
(1)Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
(2)CPU is often idle,because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
(3)Difficult to provide the desired priority.

(2)Time-Sharing Operating Systems

Time-sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.The main difference between Multi programmed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is that in case of Multi programmed batch systems, the objective is to maximize processor use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems, the objective is to minimize response time.Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response. For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.

(3)Distributed Operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.

(4)Network Operating System

A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.

(5)Real Time operating System

A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment.The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information is termed as the response time.So in this method, the response time is very less as compared to online processing.

There are two types of real-time operating systems.(1)Hard Real-Time Systems(2)Soft Real-Time Systems 

 

Software Testing

Testing is a process of executing a program with the aim of finding error. To make our software perform well it should be error free.If testing is done successfully it will remove all the errors from the software.Software testing is defined as an activity to check whether the actual results match the expected results and to ensure that the software system is Defect free. It involves execution of a software component or system component to evaluate one or more properties of interest.Software testing also helps to identify errors, gaps or missing requirements in contrary to the actual requirements. It can be either done manually or using automated tools. Some prefer saying Software testing as a White Box and Black Box Testing.In simple terms, Software Testing means Verification of Application Under Test (AUT).Levels such as Unit Testing, Integration Testing, Regression Testing, Functional Testing. System Testing, Acceptance Testing, Alpha Testing, Beta Testing, Non-Functional testing, Security Testing, Portability Testing.


Levels of Software Testing

1.Unit Testing

It focuses on smallest unit of software design. In this we test an individual unit or group of inter related units.It is often done by programmer by using sample input and observing its corresponding outputs.In a testing level hierarchy, unit testing is the first level of testing done before integration and other remaining levels of the testing. It uses modules for the testing process which reduces the dependency of waiting for Unit testing frameworks, stubs, drivers and mock objects are used for assistance in unit testing.

2.Integration Testing

Integration testing is the second level of the software testing process comes after unit testing. In this testing, units or individual components of the software are tested in a group. The focus of the integration testing level is to expose defects at the time of interaction between integrated components or units.Unit testing uses modules for testing purpose, and these modules are combined and tested in integration testing. The Software is developed with a number of software modules that are coded by different coders or programmers. The goal of integration testing is to check the correctness of communication among all the modules.

3.Regression Testing

Regression testing is a black box testing techniques. It is used to authenticate a code change in the software does not impact the existing functionality of the product. Regression testing is making sure that the product works fine with new functionality, bug fixes, or any change in the existing feature.Regression testing is a type of software testing. Test cases are re-executed to check the previous functionality of the application is working fine, and the new changes have not produced any bugs.Regression testing can be performed on a new build when there is a significant change in the original functionality. It ensures that the code still works even when the changes are occurring. Regression means Re-test those parts of the application, which are unchanged.

4.Acceptance Testing

Acceptance testing is formal testing based on user requirements and function processing. It determines whether the software is conforming specified requirements and user requirements or not. It is conducted as a kind of Black Box testing where the number of required users involved to test the acceptance level of the system. It is the fourth and last level of software testing.

Steps Yo Perform Acceptance Testing

5.Functional Testing

It is a type of software testing which is used to verify the functionality of the software application, whether the function is working according to the requirement specification. In functional testing, each function tested by giving the value, determining the output, and verifying the actual output with the expected value. Functional testing performed as black-box testing which is presented to confirm that the functionality of an application or system behaves as we are expecting. It is done to verify the functionality of the application.Functional testing also called as black-box testing, because it focuses on application specification rather than actual code. Tester has to test only the program rather than the system.

6.Alpha Testing

Alpha testing is conducted in the organization and tested by a representative group of end-users at the developer's side and sometimes by an independent team of testers.Alpha testing is simulated or real operational testing at an in-house site. It comes after the unit testing, integration testing, etc. Alpha testing used after all the testing are executed.It can be a white box, or Black-box testing depends on the requirements - particular lab environment and simulation of the actual environment required for this testing.

7.Beta Testing

It helps in enhancement of the quality of software and leads it towards success. Also, helpful in deciding whether the software is worthy to invest more in future versions or not.

Beta Testing is a part of acceptance testing which is intended to validate the product for usability, functionality, reliability, and compatibility by the end-user. It adds value to the software as user validates it by providing real input values.It is not controlled activity since it happens at the user's side. It is considered as final testing before delivering the software to the customers. Software released for beta testing is known as beta software.

Types Of Software Testing

(1)Black Box Testing 

Black box testing is a technique of software testing which examines the functionality of software without peering into its internal structure or coding. The primary source of black box testing is a specification of requirements that is stated by the customer.In this Testing,there is no needs of programming or coding.

(2)White Box Testing

The box testing approach of software testing consists of black box testing and white box testing. We are discussing here white box testing which also known as glass box is testing, structural testing, clear box testing, open box testing and transparent box testing. It tests internal coding and infrastructure of a software focus on checking of predefined inputs against expected and desired outputs. It is based on inner workings of an application and revolves around internal structure testing. In this type of testing programming skills are required to design test cases. The primary goal of white box testing is to focus on the flow of inputs and outputs through the software and strengthening the security of the software. 

(3)Automation Testing

When the testing case suites are performed by using automated testing tools is known as Automation Testing. The testing process is done by using special automation tools to control the execution of test cases and compare the actual result with the expected result. Automation testing requires a pretty huge investment of resources and money.The goal of automation testing is to reduce manual test cases but not to eliminate any of them. Test suits can be recorded by using the automation tools, and tester can play these suits again as per the requirement. Automated testing suites do not require any human intervention.

(4)System Testing

System Testing includes testing of a fully integrated software system. Generally, a computer system is made with the integration of software (any software is only a single element of a computer system). The software is developed in units and then interfaced with other software and hardware to create a complete computer system. 

(5)Smoke Testing 

Smoke Testing comes into the picture at the time of receiving build software from the development team. The purpose of smoke testing is to determine whether the build software is testable or not. It is done at the time of "building software." This process is also known as "Day 0".It is a time-saving process. It reduces testing time because testing is done only when the key features of the application are not working or if the key bugs are not fixed. The focus of Smoke Testing is on the workflow of the core and primary functions of the application.

(6)Sanity Testing

Sanity testing performed at the time of receiving software build (with minor changes in code) from the development team. The purpose of sanity testing is to ensure that all the defects have been fixed and no further issues come in existence due to these changes. It's a kind of regression testing with a focus on a few impacted functionalities only.Sanity testing can be done in two situations: one in the case of enhancement in functionality and second in the case of defect fixed. It makes sure that the changes made in code or functions have no impact on the related modules, therefore, it can be applied only on related modules that can be impacted.

Computer Science

Computer science (sometimes called computation science or computing science, but not to be confused with computational science or software engineering) is the study of processes that interact with data and that can be represented as data in the form of programs.It enables the use of algorithms to manipulate, store and communicate digital information. A computer scientist studies the theory of computation and the practice of designing software systems.

It is fields can be divided into theoretical and  practical disciplines.Computational complexity theory   

 is highly abstract, while computer graphics emphasizes real-world applications. Programming language theory considers approaches to the description of computational processes,while computer programming itself involves the use of programming languages and complex systems. Human-computer interaction considers the challenges in making computers useful,usable, and accessible.